China's Mineral Power Play in Africa

Daftar Isi

China's dominance in Africa's critical minerals sector is a result of decades of strategic investments in mining and refining capabilities. This has made it difficult for African countries to move up the value chain, as they remain reliant on exporting raw materials rather than processing them domestically. The global demand for critical minerals—such as nickel, graphite, manganese, cobalt, copper, lithium, and rare earth minerals—has surged due to their essential role in defense systems, electric vehicles (EVs), semiconductors, artificial intelligence, and medical devices.

China currently controls over half of global critical minerals production and an estimated 87% of processing and refining. It also produces nearly 70% of rare earth minerals, manufactures 93% of high-strength rare earth permanent magnets, and handles 95% of the heavy processing required for these resources. This dominance is not just limited to production but extends to infrastructure and financing, making China a central player in Africa’s mineral economy.

China has expanded its influence by acquiring major African mining assets, including Botswana’s Khoemacau copper mine (2023), Mali’s Goulamina lithium mine (2024), and Tanzania’s Ngualla rare earth mine (2025). Additionally, Chinese EV giant BYD has secured six African lithium mines, ensuring a steady supply of raw materials through 2032. By controlling key supply chains, China can manipulate exports, impose licensing requirements, and even ban exports with potential military applications, prompting competitors to seek alternative supply chains.

Critical minerals are defined as those vital for modern technologies that underpin national security, energy, and industrial applications. Rare earth elements, a subset of these minerals, consist of 17 elements used in advanced technologies like wind turbines, lasers, and electronics. Despite their name, they are not rare but are found in low concentrations and require complex, costly, and environmentally hazardous extraction processes.

China’s influence extends beyond mining into critical mineral infrastructure in Africa. Through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), China has invested in rail, port, and power grid networks that connect Africa’s mineral resources to global shipping lanes. This infrastructure helps China maintain control over the flow of minerals from Africa to international markets. China also dominates the solar panel market, producing 90% of the world’s panels and projected to supply 60% of renewable energy capacity by 2030.

Chinese policy banks have issued substantial funding for mining projects in Africa. In the first half of 2025 alone, $24.9 billion was allocated for BRI-linked mining loans, surpassing 2024’s record. This financial support enables China to maintain its grip on Africa’s mineral sector, which requires counterbalancing strategies to reduce dependency.

Africa holds significant reserves of critical minerals such as cobalt, coltan, lithium, and rare earths, yet remains at the bottom of the value chain. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) exemplifies this paradox, being rich in minerals but plagued by poverty, conflict, and reliance on raw material exports.

China’s strategy involves high-risk tolerance, state backing, diversified access, and integration across multiple sectors. Chinese state-owned enterprises (SOEs) benefit from subsidies, political risk insurance, and direct negotiations with host governments. They also employ various instruments to secure footholds in Africa’s mining sector, including offtake agreements, farm-in contracts, leasing deals, and outright acquisitions.

Infrastructure development is another key component of China’s strategy. Chinese firms build one in three and finance one in five major infrastructure projects in Africa. They also install 23 GW of power in 27 countries and operate over a third of African ports. These projects are often linked to mining activities, reinforcing China’s influence over mineral exports.

Resource-backed finance (RBF) deals allow African countries to repay Chinese infrastructure loans with mineral exports. While these deals offer alternatives, they are often opaque and can lead to exploitation. Multisector integration further embeds China within African economies, with firms operating across mining, construction, and energy sectors.

Despite efforts by African countries to gain more control over their mineral supply chains, structural limitations and China’s dominance hinder progress. Some nations have imposed export restrictions and stimulated local industries to process minerals domestically. However, challenges such as capital intensity, technological complexity, and environmental concerns persist.

China’s investments in next-generation technologies like sodium-ion batteries may shift market dynamics, but its extensive automation keeps manufacturing costs low. The geopolitics of critical minerals is not just about competition—it is about whether Africa can harness its resources for real transformation.

Chinese firms have faced criticism for labor abuses, environmental degradation, and regulatory violations. Incidents such as the acid spill in Zambia’s Kafue River highlight the risks associated with Chinese mining operations. African communities are increasingly holding responsible actors accountable through legal action, monitoring, and collaboration with civil society groups.

To align external partnerships with African interests, countries need to adopt best practices such as strict technology transfer mandates, investments in infrastructure and human capital, and enforcement of transparency and labor standards. Strengthening oversight mechanisms will be crucial to ensure that foreign partners uphold environmental and community standards.

Efforts to create more equitable and beneficial mining arrangements are ongoing, with initiatives like the Nacala Corridor Development Project demonstrating how shared financing and civil society oversight can support responsible supply chains. The African Union’s proposed mineral-producers organization aims to boost Africa’s leverage, though stronger coordination and transparency will be key to success.